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New material of Turkish rock-lizards of the rudis-group (Lacerta semcoZa-complex) can be assigned to the forms r. rudis, r. tristis and r. obscura; thus, the last named form is recorded for the first time for Turkey. Geographically intermediate samples could be interpreted as clinal, connecting r. rudis and r. tristis, but it turns out to be more likely, that there are two sympatric different taxa overlapping in the intermediate zone. This possibility which could not be proved until now leads to several extraordinaryly difficult nomenclatorial conclusions. They will be discussed further in a following contribution.

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The aim of the study is to predict the gender of Darevskia bithynica by using a feed-forward back-propagation artificial neural network (ANN). Nine morphological characters were used as an input parameters of the mo¬del. The gender type male or female is the output parameter. The total number of data is 115. In order to train, validate and test the ANN model 70%, 15% and 15% of the total data are randomly selected, respectively. The regression coefficient (R) values are evaluated as prediction performance. The network’s layer with tangent sigmoid activation functions predicts the lizard gender with R values as 0.98, 0.97 and 0.96 for training, tes¬ting and all data, respectively. The mean square error (MSE) values for training and testing data are calculated as 0.0145 and 0.0161, respectively. The obtained results satisfactorily confirm the high ability of the ANNs in predicting the gender of Darevskia bithynica.

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The aim of the study is to predict the gender of Darevskia bithynica by using a feed-forward back-propagation artificial neural network (ANN). Nine morphological characters were used as an input parameters of the mo-del. The gender type male or female is the output parameter. The total number of data is 115. In order to train, validate and test the ANN model 70%, 15% and 15% of the total data are randomly selected, respectively. The regression coefficient (R) values are evaluated as prediction performance. The network’s layer with tangent sigmoid activation functions predicts the lizard gender with R values as 0.98, 0.97 and 0.96 for training, tes-ting and all data, respectively. The mean square error (MSE) values for training and testing data are calculated as 0.0145 and 0.0161, respectively. The obtained results satisfactorily confirm the high ability of the ANNs in predicting the gender of Darevskia bithynica.

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The paper provides data on the current location of the type specimens of Darevskia (rudis) complex as of July 2017: Podarcis depressa Camerano, 1878 (syntypes – MZUT R2737.1-3, NHM 1946.9.1.31-32), Lacerta depressa var. rudis Bedriaga, 1886 (lectotype – MZUT 2737.1, paralectotypes – MZUT 2737.2-3, NHM 1946.9.1.32), Lacerta depressa var. modesta Bedriaga, 1886 (syntype – NHM 1946.9.1.31), Lacerta saxicola Subsp. bithynica Méhely, 1909 (lectotype [here designated] – ZISP 17128, paralectotype – NMW 11685), Lacerta saxicola tristis Lantz et Cyrén, 1936 (lectotype – GNM 2481, paralectotypes – GNM 2482-2485, 2487 and GNM one unnumbered specimen), Lacerta saxicola obscura Lantz et Cyrén, 1936 (lectotype [here designated] – ZISP ZISP 17171.1, paralectotypes – NHM 1966.769.773, ZISP 14435, 14436, 14437, 14438, 14439, 14440, 14442, 15402, 16290, 17057.1- 3, 17058, 17059.1-3, 17171.2-26, 17172.1-15), Lacerta rudis macromaculata Darevsky, 1967 (holotype – ZISP 17940.6, paratypes – ZISP 17440.1-18, the location of three paratypes is unknown), Lacerta rudis bischoffi Böhme et Budak, 1977 (holotype – ZDEU 183/977, paratypes – ZDEU 222/976:1, 3-6, 8-9, ZDEU 183/977.2-10, ZFMK 22062.63), Lacerta rudis svanetica Darevsky et Eiselt, 1980 (holotype – ZISP 17875.1, paratypes – ZISP 17875.2-8, 17814.1-18, NMW 24138.1-6), Lacerta rudis chechenica Eiselt et Darevsky, 1991 (holotype – NMW 33504.1, paratypes – ZISP 17878.1-13, 17882.2-4, ZISP 18374.1-5, 18781.1-6, 19545.1-13, ZFMK 16448.52, 29262, 38037.45, 40431-33, NMW 32619.1,2, 33504.2,4,5), Darevskia rudis mirabilis Arribas, Ilgaz, Kumlutaş, Durmuş, Avci et Üzüm, 2013 (holotype – ZDEU 145/2002.9, paratypes – ZDEU 145/2002.1-8, 10-18, O. Arribas private collection (1-6)), Darevskia rudis bolkardaghica Arribas, Ilgaz, Kumlutaş, Durmuş, Avci et Üzüm, 2013 (holotype – ZDEU 144/2009.6, paratypes – ZDEU 144/2009.1-5, 7-8, O. Arribas private collection (1-4)). Strictly following the ICZN the name Lacerta depressa var. rudis Bedriaga, 1886 should not be considered as the replacement name (nomen novum) for Podarcis depressa Camerano, 1878, but the only available name. The history of description of all known forms of the complex is given. Localities, collectors and dates of collection of the type specimens are clarified.

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Conventional and multivariate taxonomic methods allow the description of a new subspecies of Lacerta rudis BEDRIAGA from the Central Caucasus: L. rudis chechenica ssp. n. - In this connection the intraspecific relations between the northeastern groupings of Lacerta rudis are demonstrated. - The data-analyses used are described.

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Considering all costs associated to sex, sexual reproduction could be expected to be rare. However, we find sexual reproduction to be pervasive in nature, and only a reduced number of taxa are completely asexual. In fact, the variety of sex reproductive systems, mating techniques and traits, reveals that the organisms’ reproduction has been an expressive target of selection and adaptation throughout evolution. Sex is selected because it facilitates adaptation in complex and changing environments (Weismann, 1889), and this has been already shown empirically in several models. However, studies and theories developed concerning the paradox of sex will not be able to clarify the current distribution and abundance of asexual lineages in nature. The understanding of rates of origin and extinction of asexual lineages, together with the putative differential evolution rates in organisms with sexual or asexual reproduction, should be considered in the main “origin of sex” question. The model used here, the genus Darevskia, is the first true parthenogenetic vertebrate described. It is a highly speciose genus, currently including 27 species, of which seven are parthenogenetic and of hybrid origin. Only a few of the sexual species contributed for the hybridization events which originated the parthenogens clonal lineages, and these were directional: the maternal species were always Darevskia raddei or D. mixta, and the paternal always D. valentini or D. portshinskii. Using a set of microsatellite and mtDNA markers, we first start to study the role of hybridization in the origin of vertebrate parthenogens, the extent of gene flow with sexual relatives and the relation between hybridization, asexuality and polyploidy, in the context of the main theories of asexual evolution proposed to date. We focus on the D. unisexualis, D. uzzelli and D. armeniaca parthenogens and polyploid backcrosses found in sympatric locations between the parthenogens and its sexual parentals. We find that only specific parental pairs are responsible for the origin of vertebrate parthenogenesis, regardless of their phylogenetic distance. Despite the recurrent hybridization presently reported in Darevskia, asexuality originated multiple times but only in a single temporal event the past. Parthenogenetic females are capable of backcrossing with sexual males, but can only produce polyploid individuals with reduced fertility that do not contribute for gene flow between parthenogens and sexuals. The sexual reproduction machinery can be lost with time in the parthenogenetic hybrids, which are most likely the result of a post-zygotic reproductive barrier to gene flow in the speciation continuum of Darevskia sexual species. In order to reconstruct the phylogenetic inference of this group, a set of capture sequence probes were designed from a transcriptome de novo assembly. Phylogenetic inference reconstruction has been extensively used to ask several evolutionary biology questions. However, despite the exponential use of high-throughput sequencing technologies and its promising applications in phylogenetics, next generation sequencing (NGS) techniques are still far from being as widely used in this field as in other areas of evolutionary genetics. The workflow developed in this thesis has proved to be not only cost-effective, but also to produce a very high number of cross genome phylogenetically informative markers in this non-model species. Finally, taking advantage of the hundreds of cross genome markers developed, a species tree was constructed and within genus relationships evaluated. Introgression tests showed a widespread pattern of gene flow across the genus, not only recent between recently diverged clades, but also both recent and ancient gene flow between early diverging Darevskia clades. Several evidences of hybridization with gene flow between diverging clades have been found in other systems. However, such widespread patterns where introgression has happened between all major clades, and in a very high number of species pairs, are not frequently found. It is also found that gene flow is completely absent between parthenogens sexual parental pairs. In groups with sexual-parthenogenetic reproducing species, pre- or post-zygotic reproductive barriers could be more difficult to attain and hybrid asexuality can, thus, effectively create reproductive barriers between diverging sexual taxa, that were likely faced with recurrent secondary contact. The work presented in this thesis shows that only a few sexual species pairs were responsible for the origin of the parthenogens, that some species acted always as the maternal species and others always as the paternal, that the phylogenetic distances between each pair are included in a wide range interval, and that introgression is found widespread across the genus but absent between the parental pairs. Regardless of the reproduction type, this study also shows the relevance and depth of hybridization during divergence. As has been shown intensively, gene flow is common during speciation and clades divergence. However, it would be interesting to analyse other groups together and test if deep branch gene flow is found only in some exclusive groups (such as sexual-asexual genera) or if it is something more widespread. This work presented here moves Darevskia towards providing a model that can be used to understand the origin of asexuality in vertebrates. Here the basis for future studies about sex and asexuality is provided, so that a focus on the differential evolution rates genomes of both reproduction mode can be analysed.

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During fieldwork excursions on June and September 2015 we obtained new distributional records for three lizard species. Here, we present the first record of Darevskia rudis tristis and Lacerta viridis meridionalis from Turkey’s Ankara province and confirm the occurrence of Anguis fragilis in this locality.

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We present the first data of body size and age structure (based on the skeletochronological examination) of Darevskia bithynica from two localities characterised with different altitudes, i.e. Zonguldak (50 m) and Bolu (1200 m). Males from both lowland and highland populations were slightly larger than females. This difference was not significant for the lowland population. The maximum lifespan was found to be six years for both populations. Intersexual differences in snout-vent length were male-biased and this may be linked to the climatic conditions.

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The spiny-tailed lizard, which has a series of taxonomic revisions, is one of the most common lizard species in Turkey. In this study, sequence data derived from three microsatellite loci (Du215, Du281, and Du323), two mito chondrial (16S rRNA and Cyt-b) genes and combined data were used to evaluate the taxonomic status of Darevskia rudis and Darevskia bithynica with new samples from all subspecies populations in Turkey. Our results indicated that the genetic variations of microsatellite loci were not specific to populations within species, and only minor differences separated D. rudis and D. bithynica populations. Furthermore, the markers we used for phylo genetic analyses (NJ, ML, MP, and BI) produced topologically similar trees based on 16S rRNA and Cyt-b while the combined data produced conflicting trees with the separate gene analyses. Finally, the basal relationships among the populations in Turkish populations D. rudis and D. bithynica were not resolved with this dataset, and we found a hard polytomy at the basis of the phylogeny.

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The spiny-tailed lizard of the genus Darevskia have a series of taxonomic revisions, but still their phylogenetic relationships remain uncertain. In the present study, we have assessed taxonomic relationships among Darevskia bithynica and Darevskia rudis populations through estimation of phylogenetic relationships among 96 specimens using microsatellite DNA (Du215, Du281, Du323 and Du418 loci) and 53 specimens using mtDNA (16S rRNA and cytb) from main populations in Turkey. Although D. b. bithynica and D. r. mirabilis were separated based on the PCoA analysis at low level from other D. rudis and D. bithynica populations, the distance values of Nei’s genetic distance, Nei’s unbiased genetic distance, Fst and Linear Fst were not high among taxa in microsatellite DNA. On the other hand, our phylogenetic analyses (NJ, ML, MP and BI) did not separate D. rudis and D. bithynica populations. Finally, most of the topologically identical trees of phylogenetic analyses and microsatellite results showed that the extant populations of D. rudis and D. bithynica were found to be polytomy. Based on our molecular phylogenetic study, D. rudis complex is still ongoing revisions.

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Turkey has very high biodiversity, due to its various topographical, geological, and climatic features. Although previous studies have dealt with amphibians and reptiles from Karabük province no detailed study has yet been conducted on the herpetofauna of Karabük province. Here, we provide some records for herpetofauna of Karabük province and contribute to the literature on the Turkish herpetofauna. This study was carried out from March to June 2014. The specimens of amphibians and reptiles were collected using different techniques according to habitat conditions. The systematics of the examined materials was studied using current literature. Also, the conservation status of the species was given with national and international agreements in which Turkey is included. Result of the fieldwork conducted in Karabük province, 17 reptile species (two turtles, one tortoise, seven lizards, and seven snakes) and seven amphibian species (one urodelans, six anurans) were determined. According to our results, Parvilacerta parva, Lacerta viridis, Zamenis longissimus, Coronella austriaca and Elaphe sauromates are new records for Karabük province. This study underlines the importance of Karabük province as a herpetological area.

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Turkey is biogeographically diverse and consequently has a rich herpetofauna. As a result of active herpetological research, the number of species has steadily increased in recent years. I present here a new checklist of amphibian and reptile species distributed in Turkey, revising the nomenclature to reflect the latest taxonomic knowledge. In addition, information about the systematics of many species is also given. In total 35 (19.4%) amphibian and 145 (80.6%) reptile species comprise the Turkish herpetofauna. Among amphibians, 16 (45.7%) anurans and 19 urodelans (54.3%) are present. Among reptiles, 11 (7.6%) testudines, 71 (49%) saurians, 3 (2.1%) amphisbaenians and 60 (41.3%) ophidians are considered part of the herpetofauna. The endemism rate in Turkey is considered relatively high with a total of 34 species (12 amphibian species – 34.3% and 22 reptile species – 15.2%) endemic to Turkey, yielding a total herpetofaunal endemism of 18.9%. While 38 species have not been threat-assessed by the IUCN, 92 of the 180 Turkish herpetofaunal species are of Least Concern (LC), 13 are Near Threatened (NT), 10 are Vulnerable (VU), 14 are Endangered (EN), and 7 are Critically Endangered (CR). In addition, 6 species are in the DD (Data Deficient) category.

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Darevskia rudis (Bedriaga, 1886) and D. bithynica (Méhely, 1909) are morphologically different species, but they are phyloge-netically same species in the D. rudis complex. These species are distributed in northern of Turkey. In the present study, we have evaluated taxonomic status of D. rudis and D. bithynica using ecological niche differentiation. All occurrence data of these species were used to predict and evaluate the suitable areas where they may be expected to be found in Turkey. In order tocompare their ecological niches and explain ecological differentiation, niche similarity tests (niche identity and background tests)and point-based analyses were performed. According to results of ecological niche modeling, we found niche differentiation between D. rudis and D bithynica. Ecological niches for the two species differentiated along environmental variables, asprecipitation of driest quarter for the two species were most important in determining habitat suitability. This factor is importantin niche differentiation between the two species. Finally, our results confirmed the niche differentiation between D. rudis and D. bithynica and added new insights into the taxonomic distinction between D. rudis and D. bithynica that they are two species.

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The study of genome size variation in cells of vertebrates using the DNA flow cytometry makes it possible to precisely determine polyploid individuals, which is extremely important when studying the processes of reticulate speciation. In addition, in many groups of vertebrates, closely related species often differ in the nuclear DNA content. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to explore the variability of genome size and ploidy in populations of 29 species and subspecies of mountain lizards of the genus Darevskia, as well as their hybrids. As a result of the study, the range of variability in individuals of different ploidy (91% of diploid and 9% of triploid individuals) was established not to overlap. Among diploid species, no correlation was found between the nuclear DNA content and phylogenetic relationships, geographic coordinates, altitude, average annual temperatures and precipitation. Representatives of all studied species complexes (with the exception of D. adjarica) had approximately the same limits of variability. Two species (D. derjugini and D. saxicola) show significant intraspecific variability. Comparisons of the genome size of parthenogenetic and bisexual species generally revealed no noticeable differences between them. Studies of triploid hybrids have shown that their genome size as a whole roughly corresponds to the sum of the average size of the diploid genome of the maternal parthenogenetic species and the haploid genome of the paternal species. The variability of genome sizes within samples of triploid hybrids was on average slightly higher than in most parthenogenetic species, but some lower than in bisexual species. The paper discusses peculiarities of reticulate speciation in this group of animals.

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Investigated the albumins from 31 species and subspecies of the genus Lacerta s.1. by means of the immunoloical techniue Micro-Complement-fixation. Dendrograms were computed by means of the ktch-MargJiash algorithm. Moreover the taxa of the Lacerta saxicola and the Lacerta danfordi comlexes were analyzed by electrophoresis concerning 14 genetic loci. The results were discussel together with karyological and genitalmorphological data so far known yielding the following relationships: Lacerta graeca shows a closer relationshi to the subgenus Podarcis as does the quite closely related species air L. dugesii and L. perspicikata. Lacerta Iaevis probabl is connected closely to Podarcis, too. Lacerta parva shows a closer relationship to the `small izards` than to the sub-genus Lacerta s. str. A clear decision concerning the position of the Lacerta danfordi complex according to chemosystematical data was not possible. It is isolated from the other species probably about as long as L. puma. Biochemical differences between its `species` are too small to confirm their taxonomical revalorisation by Eiselt and Schmidtler Within the Lacerta saxicola complex the investigated taxa show a close relationship. Lacerta praticola and L. derjugini were definitly assigned to this group.

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Lacerta tristis was described as subspecies of the rock lizard and it was considered within L. saxicola species complex. Later this lizard was included in the rudis -species group as the western subspecies of Darevskia rudis tristis. Our morphological data analysis demonstrates close relationships this form to the Caucasian rock lizards D. raddei superspecies. An enlarged rough scales on the external surface of shin are typical for D. rudis and are absent in D. tristis. D. tristis differs from a species group of D. rudis by number of scales around the shin, number of scales around midbody, number of body scales row contacted with ventral scale, number of the femoral pores. D. tristis has small and elegant body in comparison with robust D. rudis. In contrast with sclerophilous D. rudis this lizard is a mesophilous species and inhabits forested areas in the Pontic Mountains. Based on the morphological and ecological characters it is suggest to consider Darevskia tristis as full species of the rock lizards.

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Anatolia is characterized by a complex topological structure and a wide diversity of climatic regions. This geological context has been crucial during the evolution of the rock lizard genus Darevskia, promoting the origin of several species within this group of lizards. Our study focuses on the evolutionary history of the rudis species complex, comprised by Darevskia rudis, D. valentini and D. portschinskii, distributed across Anatolia and the Caucasus, with overlapping ranges. Previous studies have suggested the existence of ancient gene flow between these taxa, which, allied with poor sampling, led to weakly resolved phylogenies and mismatching topologies. Here, we employ two mitochondrial (cytb and ND4) and two nuclear (MC1R and C‐mos) DNA fragments, coupled with ecological niche modelling and a significant representation of the species’ wide distribution range to further assess relationships. The specimens identified either as Darevskia rudis or as D. valentini appear as paraphyletic and substructured into four clades, which started to differentiate during the lower Pleistocene (around 1.3 Mya). We also differentiate genetically the recently described Darevskia bithynica and identify the Kizil River valley as a strong vicariant candidate to explain the origin of this species by allopatric speciation. Moreover, the eastern Black Sea Mountains seem to have played an important role as glacial refugium for several populations of D. rudis. Overall, the present study confirms the circum‐Black Sea as a potential Pleistocene refuge and supports the refugia‐within‐refugia hypothesis with the finding of several geographically coherent evolutionary units in the region.

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Knowledge on the spatial distribution of taxa is crucial for the decision-making processes in conservation and management of biodiversity that rely on precise distribution data. We present an annotated list for a total of 37 amphibian (20 caudatans and 17 anurans) and 141 reptile species (11 chelonians, 70 lizards, 3 amphisbaenians and 57 snakes) in Turkey, using both available scientific literature up to December 2020 and our own fieldwork data from 1987 to 2020. We provide a comprehensive listing of taxonomy, names, distribution and conservation status of Turkish amphibians and reptiles. The herpetofauna list will be particularly useful for establishing national conservation priorities as well as for placing Turkish fauna into phylogenetic and biogeographic contexts. We compiled information published in books, journals and various web sources and added our personal data. We projected the data in the WGS84 coordinate system and created an overlay grid with cells of 50x50 km2. The database comprises more than 500 grid cells and 11,913 records. As a result, the distribution of Turkish amphibians and reptiles has been extensively mapped with geographical information systems and a database has been created. The obtained data will be useful in planning future studies on taxonomy, ecology and conservation of Turkish amphibians and reptiles.